Agricultural activities within the city limits have existed since the first urban populations were established thousands of years ago. Yet only recently has urban agriculture become a systematic focus of research and development attention as its scale and importance in the urbanising world we live in become increasingly recognised. Urban agriculture has been recognised as a cross-sectoral issue that requires a multi-sectoral and multi-actor approach and active participation of the direct and indirect stakeholders in the planning and implementation of policies and action programmes. This requires the adaptation of the methods used in rural agricultural research and development for the specific urban conditions and to realise an innovative integration of these methods with the methods applied by urban managers and planners and other relevant disciplines.
This issue of the Urban Agriculture Magazine contains the synthesis papers produced by the six topic co-ordinators and selected contributions submitted to the editor and written for the expert workshop "Appropriate Methodologies for Urban Agriculture".
Great news from West Africa this time: the first edition of the UA-Magazine in French has been released by our colleagues of IAGU in Dakar, Senegal. French readers are suggested to contact IAGU. Issue no. 2 on Livestock is now available in Spanish. Please contact UMP-LAC.
You are invited to contribute to future issues of the Urban Agriculture Magazine. Articles would ideally be up to 2,500 words in length, and preferably accompanied by illustrations (digital and of good quality), references and an abstract. As suggested by the Editorial Board, we welcome your contributions on any subject. Articles will be examined for selection by the editorial team consisting of the RUAF-based responsible editor and the external scientific advisor/co-editor.
Looking forward to hearing from you.
The Editor
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Agricultural activities within the city limits have existed since the first urban populations were established thousands of years ago. Yet only recently has urban agriculture become a systematic focus of research and development attention as its scale and importance in the urbanising world we live in become increasingly recognised.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Developments in urban agriculture have been practitioner-led. Researchers are trying to catch up and identify what contributions they can make. Research could learn from the successes and failures addressed in other forms of agriculture, and thus identify and address the researchable questions in a proactive way. Those who wish to engage in the development of agriculture in cities will need to take a constructivist approach to innovation facilitation, whereby they should recognise that they are just one of a set of actors involved in the process.Here, the authors review some methods that have been used in the study of urban agriculture, from actor-oriented and action-research perspectives.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The incorporation of gender considerations into urban agriculture research is increasing, and indeed, there have been advances over the last decade in our understanding of both men's and women's experiences with farming in cities around the world. There is a move away from the so-called "urban farmer", an undifferentiated, masculine, normalised urban dweller who engages in agriculture. Instead, there is greater recognition that people's experiences with urban agriculture cannot be easily standardised and that gender neutrality does not necessarily capture the breadth of such experiences.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Situation analysis in urban and peri-urban agriculture is often a starting point for programmes and projects supporting interventions to improve the contribution of urban agriculture to income, family nutrition, social and environmental conditions and well-being. Yet there has been little specific consideration of appropriate methods and tools for assisting situation analysis in the urban and periurban context. The focus in this article is on methods, which help to build and facilitate action-oriented programmes, particularly emphasising participatory diagnosis and learning. We consider some of the broader analytical frameworks for understanding, and the conceptual challenges in investigating UPA. We then discuss some specific contexts of investigation in a UPA setting and raise issues for critical reflection in relation to the use of the methods and tools described.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The local government of Montevideo, along with its citizens and civil organisations, is promoting baseline studies and action plans for the implementation of urban agriculture programmes. Baseline studies should identify the principal practices and their distribution in the city. The fieldwork allows for comprehension of the most relevant characteristics of the urban farmers, as well as experiences of public organisations (Municipality of Montevideo, schools, universities, etc.), NGOs, and producer organisations. In addition, it examines the nutritional state and the current normative and legal framework of the city.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
For market-oriented farmers, the agriculture production plan should be derived from a proper marketing plan, not vice versa. The issue for farmers is not which crops can be grown, since this may be many, but what can be profitably sold. However, sound market development and advice, is a more difficult task than transferring production skills. This is the reason why market extension is often lacking or not a priority. This paper describes an Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (UPARA) for the assessment of social, economic, and technical factors affecting market gardeners. For market-oriented farmers, the agriculture production plan should be derived from a proper marketing plan, not vice versa. The issue for farmers is not which crops can be grown, since this may be many, but what can be profitably sold. However, sound market development and advice, is a more difficult task than transferring production skills. This is the reason why market extension is often lacking or not a priority.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Urban agriculture research in Southern and Eastern Africa has concentrated largely on the use of questionnaires and surveys, usually with a view to understanding the economic benefits accruing to those who practice urban agriculture. For researchers, the focus has been on identifying and analysing the contribution of urban agriculture to income generation, subsistence and food security or on considering its environmental and planning implications. So what are the dynamics behind urban agricultural activity in this context? Why do people living in low-income settlements in Cape Town invest time and money in agriculture in the absence of economic benefits?
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Urban agriculture is not a new phenomenon in the present-day cities of the world, and is more and more considered as an integrated part of urban management (as a strategy for poverty alleviation, income and employment generation and environmental management). However, only in few cases has urban agriculture been integrated into policy-making and planning.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The scope and popular recognition of the social revolution that began in Cuba in 1959 has created a Cuban model of participation in which the people identify with, and make theirs, the claims of the government. As a result the population is very involved in carrying out projects, but is much less involved in planning processes. Community participation in planning for urban agriculture development in Cuba is directly related to this particular model of participation.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
This paper introduces a methodology for assessing the social and economic policy implications of pollution impacts on the yield, quality and safety of urban and peri-urban crops. The approach emphasises non-market valuation of agricultural produce and the inclusion of the poor, whilst developing strategies to link the micro- and macro-level policy perspectives to influence ongoing policy debates.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Despite increasing attention, little is known about the actual extent and spatial distribution of urban agriculture in inner city areas. Questions need to be answered about the concentration of urban agricultural activities and the reasons for this concentration, kinds of soils occupied, water availability and quality, crops grown, (groups of) actors involved, distance to markets, and the contribution of the product to urban food security and nutrition. The application of any tool requires community participation.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Urban agriculture cannot be perceived, assessed, or developed as if it exists or has existed in a historical or political vacuum. Power relations and non-material processes have shaped urban environments for centuries. Attention to these issues is important, when considering the need and desirability for more urban agriculture development in cities. This article first discusses the relevance of a political ecology of urban agriculture; it highlights the importance of an actor-oriented approach in understanding the link between urban planning and urban agriculture. Secondly, it will refer to Mexico City's actors' interplay in the context of a local and global politicised environment.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The City of Malaybalay in Bukidnon Province in the Southern Philippines has areas lying within the Pantaron - a very critical mountain range for securing water resources for Mindanao Island. Belgian and Philippine research institutes have joined continuing efforts to facilitate the official recognition, by local government units and national line agencies, of the inherent capability of indigenous communities to ensure a sustainable environment using a GIS methodology. A pilot area has been set up in the city for promoting participatory environmental management with a solid scientific basis. This article describes the background and principles of the approach.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The urban agriculture production system is characterised by a variety of agricultural micro-enterprises, the performance of which is not only limited by bio-climatic, land and socio-economic constraints but also by important technical restrictions. Although urban farmers are quite dynamic and innovative and have a vast scope for technical improvement, the rate of development and diffusion of technologies to these systems is still limited. This article explores the methods and procedures that may be applied with success to urban agriculture.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
This article presents a social analysis of the co-ordination of the production-consumption chain in agriculture. The inter-relations in two production-consumption chains are compared; cereals and dairy in Senegal. Social network analysis is a valuable means of exploring the dynamics of urban agriculture and how economic reasoning is embedded in these social networks.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Farmers in urban settings sometimes have limited pools of local technical knowledge on which to draw compared to their rural counterparts, sometimes because they are new to farming, sometimes because the environment in which they farm is new and unfamiliar. The Farmer Field Schools (FFS) provides the means for farmers and facilitators to explore available local knowledge and very importantly in this context, to identify the knowledge gaps that need to be addressed. Some pros and cons are discussed below.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Periurban agriculture is confronted with several interrelated issues, which are all linked to increasing population and rapid urban growth. A major concern is the increasing conversion of agricultural land for housing development vis à vis the need to produce sufficient food on a sustainable basis to satisfy the increasing urban demand. This paper presents a case study in which various participatory methods were used in research priority setting and planning, accommodating local knowledge in the development and choice of appropriate technologies and monitoring and evaluation. It will focus on SWAP, which elsewhere is referred to as SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats).
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The terms Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) are often used in a broader sense than what is known from project work. Half of the resource papers for the workshop presented 'M&E experiences' that consisted of surveys and analyses of biophysical, socio-economic or institutional urban agricultural issues without specific reference to any project or policy intervention. In the strict sense, this kind of "M&E" would be better classified as Situation Analysis and Diagnosis (see the NRI paper). Nonetheless, this topic paper considers that repeated situation analyses also contribute to project M&E. While there is already a well-established body of general literature on M&E in agricultural research and development (R&D), most of the reported experiences are based on the rural setting. Here differences and appropriate methodsare discussed.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
In Tanzania, urban and peri-urban agriculture is a well-known activity and has reached the level of official acceptance (Jacobi et al. 2000). Systematic monitoring and evaluation as well as channelling generated information and feedback from the field to the relevant levels has supported this acceptance. A balance is sought between "conventional" and "participatory" monitoring. Both "hard data" are necessary, as is a system that allows primary stakeholders to monitor and evaluate their activities using different methods and their own indicators. Truly appropriate monitoring and evaluation should enhance internal learning and provide evidence to support qualitative statements about the impact of an action. This information can be relevant to members of the community and to decision-makers.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Malnutrition is a serious public health problem in Bangladesh. It can have serious impacts on the population as it retards child growth, increases the risk and duration of illness, reduces work output, and slows social and mental development. Improving nutritional status, including micronutrient status, can lead to increased productivity, increased child survival and growth, and reduced maternal morbidity and mortality.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
This paper provides practical indicators and field methods for assessing the impact of urban and periurban agriculture in social and economic terms (employment, income, added value, and food supply). In a context of growing advocacy for policy support in favour of urban agriculture, and while public resources are shrinking, it is necessary that researchers provide rigorous assessments of the contribution of agriculture to the city's policy objectives (Ellis and Sumberg 1998). This paper is based on the author's fieldwork in West and Central Africa, with a focus on vegetable production and marketing (Moustier 2000), as well as on a literature review.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Despite widely known benefits, urban agriculture is often marginalised in urban planning, considered a temporary activity and inconsistent with the idea of a modern city. It occupies space where, it is argued, more economically valuable development could take place. This last argument is probably valid if the market value of the output of UA is compared to, say, a commercial development. But, it is less clear cut if we include the non-market benefits of UA. This inclusion of non-market benefits is the basis of a form of cost-benefit analysis that has emerged in the past decade. While measuring the monetary value of market goods is relatively straightforward, valuing non-market benefits is more of a challenge.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Much of the developing countries' rapidly growing population, forms part of the economy that lies outside the regulatory framework of governments, in what is known as the informal sector. Although the definitions vary according to the country context, it is generally agreed that the informal sector, whether rural or urban, comprises small and micro-enterprises producing and distributing basic goods and services in unregulated, but competitive markets. Micro-enterprises provide income and employment for significant proportions of workers in rural and urban areas.
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
The PROVE - "Small Agricultural Production Verticalisation Programme", is a programme designed to promote small agricultural production, processing and trade. It involves many urban and peri-urban agricultural systems, including vegetable-gardening, fruit-growing and livestock systems. Intervention is at the individual and/or collective level, especially aimed at the lower income groups. The stages of the approach are given in (eleven) rungs in a ladder
In: UA Magazine 5 - Methodologies for UA research, policy development, planning and implementation
Two studies were conducted to characterise the demand of private households, vendors and institutional users for fresh vegetables in Cagayan de Oro City, the Philippines. Specifically, these surveys aimed to provide baseline data for decision-makers and farmer-practitioners to further improve the market transparency for vegetables and, thus, contribute to better producer and consumer linkages.
The UA Magazine is published by the Resource Centre for Urban Agriculture (RUAF), a Programme co-ordinated by ETC Netherlands and financed by DGIS, the Netherlands, and IDRC, Canada. The UA Magazine is published 3 times a year, and is translated into French and Spanish, and distributed in separate editions through regional networks.
This issue has been compiled by René van Veenhuizen (responsible editor), together with the topic coordinators.